Martyrs in Formation A. D. 1617-1630
Jesuit Martyrs of North America—The priests, Jogues, Brebeuf, Daniel, Gamier, Lalemant, Chabanel—Their devoted companions, Goupil and Lalande, laymen—-The Society of Jesus, spirit and training—Life in the novitiate—The Spiritual Exercises—Reformation not an ideal, but a means to the following of Christ—The Exercises and the phobias, athletes of Christ—After the novitiate, studies, philosophy, teaching, theology, priesthood.
Among the men of the distinguished half-century outlined in the preceding chapter, whose life-work has had a lasting influence, and whose fame, exalted as it has been up to this, has now become sacred and imperishable, are the eight missionaries who are known as the Jesuit Martyrs of North America.
The singular distinction of being the first in this part of the New World to be so honored belongs to Isaac Jogues, John de Brebeuf, Noel Chabanel, Anthony Daniel, Charles Gamier, Gabriel Lalemant, priests, and their companions, Rene Goupil and John Lalande, laymen. They were all born in France. They left that country when equipped for their life's work to dwell and labor in the vast and unattractive wilderness known as Canada or New France, three of them, Jogues, Goupil and Lalande, penetrating into territory now part of the State of New York and dying there for the Faith.
The sole object of these intrepid missionaries was the conversion of the savages, who occupied these countries, principally the Hurons, Petuns, Neuters, Algonquins and Iroquois. Never did mortal men work so persistently, nor with such optimism amid every form of privation, obstacle, hardship, danger and reason for discouragement. Only for testimony which inspires conviction, what they endured would be incredible. Like giants they stand out even among their own heroic associates. Their savage tormentors ate the hearts and drank the blood of Lalemant and Brebeuf, hoping to partake of their courage and endurance.
With the exception of Brebeuf who was born March 25, 1593, these martyrs were born and died in the first half of the seventeenth century. He was the only one to exceed fifty years of age, dying in 1649. In that brief space they accomplished the work of long years. The preparation for their arduous careers was the same for all. Of the earliest years of some of them little is known prior to their entrance into the Society of Jesus. After that their manner of life is known minutely, in their various habitations and occupations, up to the time when those who were to become priests received Holy Orders. Fortunately, the schools in which they studied and taught, "the best schools in the world," Bancroft says,(4) are still so celebrated that one may, without surmise, appreciate the seriousness of their formation and the quality of the labor they were appointed to perform.
Jogues, the first of these priests to die a martyr, was born in Orleans, January 10, 1607. According to Canon Hubert, genealogist of Orleans, he was the child of his father's second marriage. The father, who had occupied every prominent official position in his native city, died soon after, leaving the boy's education to the mother, Francoise de Saint-Mesmin. His name Isaac was apparently a favorite one in his family, one of his uncles being so named and two nephews also. Canon Hubert records his name as Jacques, or James, but his townsman and biographer, Forest, whom all follow, names him Isaac, from the baptismal record of the Church of St. Hilary, and the name has been consecrated by usage.(5) Holweck lists forty-eight saints of that name, so that it is not a singularity in Jogues' case.(6) The name fitted him perfectly, predestined as he was to sacrifice. Finishing his college course at seventeen, be became a Jesuit novice at Rouen, leaving there in 1625 to study philosophy three years at the royal college of La Fleche, which Descartes, who studied there, considered one of the most celebrated schools in Europe.(7) After three years more given to teaching he prepared for Holy Orders by the study of theology. Ordained early in 1636, he celebrated his first Mass on February 10th, at Orleans, to the great delight of his family. He departed for Canada on April 2nd, in company with the Governor of New France, Charles Huault de Montmagny, appointed to succeed Champlain who had died the year before.
The first-born of the group, Brebeuf, appears on the scene only at his entrance into the Jesuit novitiate at Rouen, already twenty-four years of age. He was Norman, born at Conde-sur-Vire, near Lisieux, home of the Little Flower, and not far from Bayeux, famous for its tapestry. There had been Crusaders in his family, and two centuries before a Brebeuf had fought with William the Conqueror at Hastings. Thence, no doubt, came English descendants of the family, the Arundels, with their own three illustrious martyrs, Philip Howard, the Duke of Norfolk, his father, and William Howard, Viscount Stafford.(8) This may account for the memorial window in memory of Brebeuf in the Anglican Church of St. Martin at Brighton.(9) He had studied the humanities and philosophy and moral theology also, each for two years, when he entered the Jesuit novitiate in 1617. His health was poor, and he could not make the usual studies of the young Jesuit, nor could he teach for any length of time. Obliged to rest in the Jesuit residence, opened a few years before at Pontoise, he studied theology sufficiently to qualify for ordination in the unusually short time, for one of his Order, of six years. He celebrated his first Mass on the feast of the Annunciation, his natal feast day, which was transferred that year to April 4th. No one would have predicted that two years later, in 1625, this invalid consumptive would make his first voyage to Canada, and, when driven out by the English in 1629, return there in 1633 to become the giant Apostle of the Hurons.
Next to Brebeuf in order of years was Daniel, also Norman, from the seaport of Dieppe, born May 27, 1601. He had finished his rhetoric and philosophy, and was studying law when he decided to become a Jesuit, following Brebeuf in the Rouen novitiate in 1621. After the customary two years he began a four years' term of teaching in the college in that city, leaving there to study theology at Clermont College, Paris. After his ordination to the priesthood in 1631, he taught humanities again in the College at Eu, and then, with Brebeuf, he assisted the rector there until he sailed for the Mission of New France, arriving at Cape Breton in 1632, preceding Brebeuf who was to come back to the mission the year following. Four years younger than Daniel, Garner was a Parisian, born on May 25, 1605. He was educated at Clermont, then one of the most notable colleges in France. His parents were rich, but the money they allowed him went for the relief of prison inmates. At nineteen he became a Jesuit, following the usual training courses still at Cler-mont, then teaching at Eu from 1629 to 1632. Ordained priest three years later, he was assigned to the Canada Mission, but out of consideration for his father who, though a staunch benefactor of the Jesuits, had reluctantly consented to Charles becoming one of them, his departure was delayed a year. He sailed at length with Jogues in April, 1636.
Paris was the birthplace of Gabriel Lalemant, the last of the Martyrs to reach New France. He was born October 10, 1610. Two of his uncles were distinguished Canadian missionaries, Charles and Jerome. After making his vows as a Jesuit, in Paris, in 1632, he added a fourth vow to devote his life to the Indians. He had to wait fourteen years to fulfil that vow. Meanwhile, he was reviewing his classical studies, reading philosophy, teaching the classics and mastering theology. As priest, owing to weak health he was chaplain for a year at the college of La Fleche. Then he taught philosophy at Moulins for a year and superintended the studies at Bourges from 1644 to 1646, when he embarked for Canada.
Youngest of all these missionaries was Chabanel, born February 2, 1613, in southern France near Mende, soon after the Huguenots had devastated that region. A Jesuit at the age of seventeen, he followed the usual courses of philosophy and theology, teaching between them for an interval of five years.
In 1643 he embarked for Canada arriving there on August 15th, after a three months' voyage. Goupil and Lalande, lay assistants of the missionaries, both died as companions of Jogues. They were called donnes, that is, given, or dedicated to their work, oblates as we would style them now, a factor in the success of the priests which we can scarcely appreciate. Goupil was born at Angers, the same year as Jogues. Lalande's birthplace was Dieppe: only that is known of him, and where and how he died so nobly. Goupil tried hard to be a Jesuit and he actually entered the novitiate, but his health forced him to resign. He then studied surgery and found his way to Canada, where he offered his services to the missionaries, matching the most heroic of them by his fidelity, fortitude 'in suffering and martyrdom.
The Society of Jesus, of which the six priests were members, was then nearing the completion of the first century of its existence. Founded in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola, who had planned to restrict its membership to sixty, in 1615 it numbered 13,112, distributed over thirty-two provinces, with over five hundred and fifty houses, and three hundred and seventy-two of these attached to as many colleges. It was governed from that year until 1645 by Mutius Vitelleschi. Before his death the membership had increased by three thousand, and the number of houses had doubled, the colleges alone exceeding five hundred and twenty-five. It was a time of development in the character and quality of work as well as of membership. Under the previous General, Claudius Acquaviva, the entire body had been so closely organized and its various activities so well regulated, that it could adapt itself to the their work, oblates as we would style them now, a factor in the success of the priests which we can scarcely appreciate. Goupil was born at Angers, the same year as Jogues. Lalande's birthplace was Dieppe: only that is known of him, and where and how he died so nobly. Goupil tried hard to be a Jesuit and he actually entered the novitiate, but his health forced him to resign. He then studied surgery and found his way to Canada, where he offered his services to the missionaries, matching the most heroic of them by his fidelity, fortitude 'in suffering and martyrdom.
The Society of Jesus, of which the six priests were members, was then nearing the completion of the first century of its existence. Founded in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola, who had planned to restrict its membership to sixty, in 1615 it numbered 13,112, distributed over thirty-two provinces, with over five hundred and fifty houses, and three hundred and seventy-two of these attached to as many colleges, it was governed from that year until 1645 by Mutius Vitelleschi. Before his death the membership had increased by three thousand, and the number of houses had doubled, the colleges alone exceeding five hundred and twenty-five. It was a time of development in the character and quality of work as well as of membership. Under the previous General, Claudius Acquaviva, the entire body had been so closely organized and its various activities so well regulated, that it could adapt itself to the needs of the time, in missionary as well as in civilized countries, and assume new tasks without impairing the spirit which animated it. To preserve and strengthen this spirit was always a prime consideration with its members as well as with those who were appointed to govern it. To this alone must be ascribed whatever the Society as a whole or its individual members have accomplished.
Whether Brebeuf and Daniel, as well as the other four, came under the influence of this spirit during their college course is not known. Before entering the novitiate they had studied humanities and philosophy, and they were fully prepared for the formation they were to receive. It will be observed that all these young men had finished college when not much older than students finishing in our high school today. Ranke remarks that in the Jesuit schools in Germany of that time, "young people learned more under them in half a year than with others in two years."(10) This was true of the schools in France also. Schwickerath cites testimonies to the excellence of the French Jesuit colleges, and says that nowhere was the Ratio, the Jesuit system of education, better followed than in La Fleche.(11)
As novices their academic studies were interrupted for a while, but this does not mean that their minds were let lie fallow. On the contrary, during that time their mental application was more systematic and intense than would be required of them in any school. They were engaged in meditation twice daily, an hour in the morning and a half-hour in the evening. Daily also they read books by masters, not only in mystical and ascetical knowledge, but also in biography, history, and constantly the Holy Scripture. They were practiced in the habit of analysing what they read, and especially of what they heard in the instructions given them every day by one skilled in spiritual matters. They were taught to cultivate a vigilant and correct conscience. Conversation for them was not only the art of speaking with one another, but, in its old and broader meaning, the manner of deal-ing with everyone, the virtue of modesty, the Roman moderation, always in control. They had their times for manual labor, outdoors and indoors, for walking, for recreation, for games. Perhaps it was in these that Jogues learned to run swifter than any Indian. Even in recreation they spoke a great part of the time in Latin; their books were in all the modern languages; they received letters written by Jesuits already employed in every part of the globe. They visited the hospitals and went about on pilgrimages, often working their way and begging bread or lodging.
They were trained to meet privation, hardship and occasional opposition or humiliation, not stoically, as if such things were a matter of course, but heroically and in Christian-like manner, as things good to bear, and to bear like Christ.
The chief factor in the training of a Jesuit is the Spiritual Exercises, the system, or method, as it may be called, of religious formation devised by Ignatius. The name means activity of the soul or spirit, just as manual or physical exercise means activity of the body. This spiritual activity moreover has a very definite purpose. Just as well-regulated bodily exercise fits muscle and nerve, joint and limb to perform various tasks with ease and pleasure, so these spiritual exercises gradually enable the faculties, mental and moral, to accomplish difficult things without failure or fatigue, even with delight. For most people it is irksome and even distasteful to meditate, especially when the object of the meditation is unusual or above their comprehension. They are content with words, without weighing their meaning. God, life, soul, duty, death, are known to them, but not so as to inspire them. Christ is an object of veneration, but more: as if He were of the past rather than an animating principle for the present. The Exercises of Ignatius would change all this.
We can imagine these six ardent young men when first they attempted this system of spiritual athletics. They had been brought up piously. They knew much about God and His Divine law, about Christ, the Church, saints, sin and sacraments. Now, however, for the first time they would apply their reason calmly, leisurely, attentively and without emotion, to think of God as Creator, of man as creature endowed with life and faculties for a purpose, and of his consequent obligation to work out that purpose, that is, to serve God as perfectly as possible; to consider this as the essential thing, and all others, health, acquisition of wealth, honor, success, longer or shorter life, as subservient to this, it is one thing to repeat words, or to use them super-ficially; another to reason profoundly about their meanings, and to think correctly. What effect such reasoning must have will appear later in a Jogues' meek submission to God's will when he was tortured beyond mere human endurance by the Iroquois, or on a Chabanel when urged to give up his missionary career because of insurmountable difficulties, dedicating himself by vow, even though it should involve, as it did not long after, his death.
With a right estimate of God, of His goodness and power, comes a new sense of the enormity of evil, of one's responsibility and guilt in committing sin, and of one's own helplessness to overcome it. The Exercises bring this helplessness home, not as it is in others, but in oneself. This is the whole difference between Ignatius as Reformer and the multitude who have won that title by attempting to reform in others what they would not change in themselves. He leads one to realize the need of selfreform, and he points the way to Christ as the only means of achieving this because He is not only the source of Divine grace, but also the model for all genuine reformation. Indeed, reformation is not the ideal to which He would have the soul aspire. It is only a means to an end, and the end is to follow Christ as leader closely, to know Him intimately and to love Him with an affection for which He set the measure — the love greater than which no man can have, even to the laying down of life for a friend — the friend Christ Himself.
Charles Lalemant, the novice-master of Jogues Brebeuf and Daniel, whose writings are to-day used by those who value real mysticism, must have been delighted with the response of these generous souls as he made known to them the invitation of Christ to help Him establish His Kingdom on earth, and set before them the two standards, that of Christ and that of Satan, not to bid them choose, but to make them more ardently devoted to their Leader Christ. An appeal to the emotions! Yes, but the emotions stirred by a calm and enlightened reason ing, emotions which no mind can resist that dare reason rightly about Christ. It was this that prepared them for their life's work. Some of them Gabriel Lalemant, for instance, had become Jesuit with the purpose of becoming missionaries. Here was an appeal to all. The appeal was not to the enchantment of distant lands nor to the romantic of adventure, but to the task of preparation, the slow, dull, relentless effort to qualify for fields which needed the spirit of martyrs.
The Exercises animated Jogues and his companions with this martyr spirit, the spirit of an Order which since its foundation has been, like Christ after whom it is named, a sign for contradiction. They knew in France what it was to be the scapegoat, to have the crime of the assassin Ravail-lac charged against them; to have the University of Paris and the Parliament of that and other cities arrayed against them; to have been suppressed; to witness their own Biard and Masse go forth in spite of incredible annoyances and obstacles to the very Mission to which they aspired and come back after acting as Confessors of the Faith, only to find their calumniators preceding them. They had no lack of object lessons. Far from being moved by fear, they were inspired to face similar ordeals or worse. This is the characteristic negative effect of the Exercises, the defiance and conquest of fear, of the phobias, to use the slang of the psychology of the day, and the consequent readiness to adopt a course of life regardless of all that usually daunts the human spirit. Free of its fears, the soul is in a position to decide on any noble course, no matter how arduous, and this decision is the culminating act of the Exercises. All that goes before leads up to it, all that follows confirms it. It becomes the turning point of life. It fixes the principles on which one will act for the future and it starts the habits which will characterize one's whole existence, it puts the will, guided by reason, in supremacy over every other faculty and sense. With this habit of decision come the precious habits of initia tive, resource, labor, order, system, energy, pers verance. In this way did Jogues, Brebeuf and their future companions in New France pass an entire month early in their novitiate. The experi -ence of this month put a new spirit into their entire after life. The Exercises, true to their title, form not militant Christians only, as some would have it, but genuine athletes of Christ.
After the novitiate Jogues, Chabanel and Garner received and extended their studies in philosophy for three years. Lalemant, who had studied philosophy for three years, and Daniel for two years, before entering the novitiate, were appointed to teach, Lalemant at Moulins, and Daniel at Rouen. Brebeuf was physically unfit to teach or follow exacting courses of study. Philosophy was a live branch of knowledge in those days, especially in the country in which Descartes, Malebranche and Pascal were influencing thought and in a Society in which the works of Suarez, Vasquez and Molina were then the vogue. It was never a tame study in Jesuit schools, nor one-sided. Every view, system opinion, school, theory is put before the students or scholastics, as they are called. They are required not only to recite what they gather from lectures, but to engage in disputation over it before their assembled classes, to write occasional essays on crucial questions and to pass each year oral examinations in entire treatises. Precision of statement is the chief requirement. No quarter is given to vague terminology or wandering from the precise point at issue. As in the Exercises so in the philosophical studies, reason is paramount. Philosophy was the general term, as it still is in Jesuit schools, with its divisions of mental philosophy — with subdivisions of logic, cosmology, metaphysics, psychology, epistemology, ethics, theology apart from revelation; and natural philosophy, or science: mathematics, mechanics, physics, biology, chemistry, astronomy. Jogues, and later Lalemant, passed these three years at La Fleche, the favorite college of Henry IV, noted for its courses in mathematics and physics, with its two thousand students; Gamier was at Clermont; Chabanel at Toulouse. Daniel and Lalemant had studied philosophy sufficiently before becoming Jesuits.
All but Brebeuf taught from three to five years in the colleges of the Order prior to the study of theology and immediate preparation for the priesthood; Jogues at Rouen, where he was to live with Brebeuf and Enemond Masse, both already back from the missions in Canada and hoping to return thither; Chabanel at Toulouse; Daniel at Rouen; Gamier at Eu; and Lalemant at Nevers. The five were engaged in teaching the humanities. Each had the entire instruction of his class, taking it as a rule through all the grades up to philosophy, and associating intimately with his students, in their recreations, games and pious practices.